Meditation, Buddhist meditation

Worldwide, meditation is the most recommended and utilized practice for improving the health of body, mind, and spirit; it is the central practice of essential Buddhism. There is a large Western research literature on meditation (Andresen, 2000; Murphy & Donovan, 1997) and a fast growing interest in the psychotherapeutic uses of meditation (e.g., Kwee, 1990; Marlatt & Kristeller, 1999). There is no agreed-upon definition of "meditation," and in the United States the term is often used for guided imagery, deliberation, and daydreaming.
In Conjunctive Psychology, the practice of meditation is divided into four discrete components: form, object, attitude, and behaviors of the mind. Form refers to what one does with one's body during meditation. The Buddha suggested four basic forms: sitting, walking, lying, and standing. Object refers to the primary stimulus of one's attention, such as one's breathing, an external visual or auditory stimulus, a sound or phrase said to oneself, or an imagined being or scene. The object determines whether a meditation practice is primarily religious, therapeutic, or something else. Attitude is the mental set in which one approaches meditation, including moods, associations, expectations, and intentions. Optimal practice involves persistent dedication, a welcoming openness to experience, a readiness to let go, letting be rather than trying to accomplish something, making friends with oneself, and being in the here and now.
The behaviors of the mind component refers to the fact that all the major meditation traditions in the world stress the development of concentration and/or mindfulness (Goleman, 1988; Ornstein, 1986); hence this would be part of an ultimate definition of meditation. All the major meditation practices contain both concentration and mindfulness, but most emphasize concentration. The emphasis given to mindfulness is Buddhism's strong contribution; but in some Buddhist meditation practices and/or an individual's practice at a certain time, concentration is emphasized.
Because meditation is often done within a religious context and/or with a religious object, all of meditation is often seen as a religious practice, and thus irrelevant or inappropriate to some Western psychologists. But meditation can be psychotherapy when in a therapeutic context with a therapeutic object (examples will be given in the section on behavior modification). Also, for Western psychology it is necessary to explore a wider range of forms, including ones individualized for clients, such as running, swimming, fishing, craftwork, and listening to music. But regardless of form and object, cultivation of concentration and mindfulness is critical for optimal